Access Network

Essential for connecting devices to broader networks, access networks underpin services like Internet, VoIP, and video streaming. Blending wired and wireless technologies is vital for personal and enterprise use. Maintained by ISPs, these networks continuously evolve, incorporating technologies like FTTH to enhance speed and reliability.

What Does an Access Network Do?

Before the employment of cables and hardware for the transmission of Internet signals, access networks were created using telephone technology. Depending on the network's setup and the switches that transit them, data packets are sent between nodes. Servers, routers, and the copper or fiber optic cables that connect them make up access networks. Copper lines were more frequently used when the infrastructure for national networks was first developed, but telecommunications companies have started using fiber as well. Since the 1970s, fiber optic cables have been used for telecommunications, but with the development of 5G and high-speed networking technologies, their significance has increased. Compared to copper connections, fiber optic cables transfer signals more swiftly and across greater distances. Additionally, they are stronger physically and are less likely to deteriorate or be destroyed.

Types of Access Network

Ethernet

• The standard method for establishing connections between devices in a wired LAN is Ethernet. It allows for the use of a protocol, which is a set of guidelines or common network language, to allow devices to communicate with one another.
• Ethernet covers the formatting and transmission of data by network devices so that other hardware connected to the same LAN or campus network can recognize, receive, and process the data. Data is transmitted by actual, covered wiring known as an Ethernet cable.
• Ethernet is most usually used by connected devices that connect via cables, as opposed to wireless connections, to access a geographically localized network. Diverse end customers, ranging from enterprises to gamers, depend on the advantages of Ethernet connectivity, including its dependability and security.
• Ethernet typically has a lower interruption risk than wireless LAN (WLAN) technologies. Because devices must connect via a physical cable, it can also provide a higher level of network security and management than wireless technologies. As a result, it is more challenging for outsiders to access network data or take over bandwidth for unauthorized devices.
• Ethernet is still a widely used type of network connection and is used to connect devices in a network. Ethernet is utilized for local networks because of its high speed, security, and dependability in places where it is specifically needed, including company offices, campuses of educational institutions, and hospitals.
• Although you may be working with wires, you still have the option to use Ethernet connections to carry data up to 100 meters (328 feet) from your modem or router. It doesn't take much to make the switch at home, or even to hard-wire your game console or desktop gaming setup while your phone and tablet connect to your Wi-Fi signal, as the majority of routers already come with Ethernet ports.
• The control and security provided by Ethernet are difficult to match for those who are more business-oriented. You have control over who is currently connected to your local network with a physical connection. This not only releases data for your users but also aids in preventing unintentional (not to mention risky and expensive) security breaches.

DSL

• A group of technologies known as digital subscriber line (DSL; formerly known as digital subscriber loop) is used to carry digital data over telephone lines. The most widely used DSL technology for Internet access is known as asymmetric digital subscriber line, or ADSL, in the telecommunications industry.
• Since DSL uses higher frequency bands for data, it is possible to transmit both wired and wireless services over the same phone line. Each non-DSL outlet on the customer's premises has a DSL filter on it that prevents high-frequency interference so that both voice and DSL services can be used together.
• Depending on DSL technology, line conditions, and service-level implementation, consumer DSL services often have bit rates that range from 256 kbit/s to over 100 Mbit/s in the direction that goes to the customer (downstream). It is possible to achieve bit rates of 1 Gbit/s.
• The term "asymmetric service" refers to the fact that ADSL has a decreased data throughput in the upstream (i.e., directed toward the service provider) direction. Asymmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL) services have equal downstream and upstream data rates. Using conventional copper telephone lines, Bell Labs researchers have achieved speeds over 1 Gbit/s for symmetrical broadband access services, albeit such speeds have not yet been implemented elsewhere.
• DSL is used to maintain or regulate the internet's transfer speed. We will be able to acquire both telephone and internet service with the aid of DSL filters or splitters, and since splitters separate persistence and regularity, they won't be able to be interrupted.

Types of DSL:

• Equal download and upload speeds are provided by Symmetric DSL (SDSL), which evenly divides the upstream and downstream frequencies. 2 Mbps may be available both upstream and downstream on this connection. Small businesses typically favor it.
• The broader frequency band offered by asymmetric DSL (ADSL) allows for several times quicker downstream speeds. Because most users download more data than they upload, an ADSL connection may provide 20 Mbps downstream and 1.5 Mbps upstream.

Benefits -

• No Extra Cabling- Because a DSL connection uses your existing telephone wiring, you won't need to invest in pricey improvements to your phone system.
• Cost-Effective: The best connectivity is provided via DSL internet, which is also very cost-effective.
• The service providers' availability of DSL modems.
• Phone lines and the internet can both be used concurrently by users. And the reason for that is that the frequencies used to transmit voice and digital messages are different.
• Users are given the option to select from a range of providers' connection speeds and costs.

FTTH

• The installation and use of optical fiber from a central location directly to individual structures such as homes, apartment complexes, and businesses to provide high-speed internet access are known as fiber to the home (FTTH), sometimes known as fiber to the premises (FTTP). FTTH significantly improves on technology already employed in most regions in terms of connection speeds offered to computer users.
• Up to 100 megabits per second connection speeds are promised by FTTH (Mbps). Compared to standard cable modems or DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) connections, these speeds are 20 to 100 times faster. Because it necessitates the installation of new cable sets across the "last links" from existing optical fiber cables to individual users, FTTH implementation on a broad scale would be expensive.

Benefits of FTTH

• The key advantage of FTTH has improved network performance, notably, faster speeds over longer distances, which the more traditional technology using coaxial cables, twisted pair conductors, and DSL cannot provide.
• Experts believe that FTTH is the greatest technology to address consumer network demands in the next decades due to its noticeably increased bandwidth. Among the advantages of this are:
• Enhanced HD video streaming performance on platforms like YouTube and Roku.
• Some people refer to FTTH as "future proof" since it allows for several upgrades without requiring the replacement of the fiber. Updates to the fiber's supporting infrastructure are possible without affecting the fiber itself.
• Larger distances were covered at higher speeds than with earlier technologies.
• Better than other fiber designs since fiber links straight to homes and can finish off the remaining network segments with Ethernet or coaxial cable.

Since the 1980s, FTTH has expanded to meet the expanding network requirements of the modern world. The fact that many fiber cables put in place in the 1980s are still in operation today is evidence of their adaptability through time. Fiber technology is now more accessible and affordable than it was in the 1980s. Today, the use of FTTH and fiber optics is growing.

Wireless LANs

The term "wireless LAN" refers to a local area network. It goes under the name LAWN (Local Area Wireless Network).

The wireless LAN technologies are outlined by the IEEE 802.11 group of standards. The 802.11 standard employs CSMA/CA and the Ethernet protocol for path sharing (carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance). It also employs the wired equivalent privacy technique for encryption. High-speed data transfer is made possible by wireless LANs in confined spaces like a building or an office. WLANs enable users to move around while keeping connected to the network in a small space. NCR's Waveland and Motorola's ALTAIR are two examples of WLANs that are currently on the market.

Advantages of WLANs:

• Flexibility: Nodes can communicate freely as long as they are within radio range. Wall-penetrating radio waves allow for the placement of senders and receivers almost everywhere (also non-visible, e.g., within devices, in walls, etc.).
• Planning is required for any wired network; only wireless ad-hoc networks permit communication without prior planning.
• Design: Wireless networks enable the creation of autonomous, compact devices that, for instance, can fit into a pocket. Cables impose limitations on consumers as well as PDAs and other smallnotepadmakers.
• Robustness: Wireless networks are more resilient to disasters like earthquakes and floods than wired networks, which typically entirely fail during such events.
• Cost: For two reasons, installing and maintaining a wireless LAN is typically less expensive than installing and maintaining a conventional wired LAN. First, adding more users to a network won't raise the price after the first user receives wireless access to the wireless network via an access point. Additionally, wireless LAN does away with the direct expenditures of cable and the labor needed to install and maintain it.
• Usefulness: WLANs are simple to operate and require relatively little new information from users to be effective.

3G and LTE

The oldest technology in the group referred to as 3g is the third generation network. It was the first technological advancement to give the user a speedy enough connection to a smartphone to allow for reasonable speed. The data was excessively slow and the user had to wait a long time for it to load when using 2g technology, which was used before 3g.

Long Term Evolution is the abbreviation used for it. The speed of this technology can exceed 3g by a factor of ten. The network speed is also said to be influenced by network load and signal quality. However, LTE is still thought to be quicker than 3G even though it is also thought to fall short of its theoretical speed.

Main Differences Between 3G and LTE:

• Both 3G and LTE are cutting-edge technologies that are applied to mobile phones.
• At that time, 3G can operate at speeds of up to 7.2 Mbps, which is excellent. LTE, on the other hand, has a maximum speed of 100 Mbps, which is lower than 4G.
• When downloading, 3G can be unreliable. On the other hand, LTE is significantly quicker, and we can also confirm that LTE is quicker than 3G.
• For older smartphones, 3G can be a great network option. However, for new mobile phones, LTE can be a great network option.
• An outdated technology with reliable, well-established servers is 3G. However, LTE is a young technology without reliable, well-established servers.

Mobile Access Networks

Mobile gadgets, such as mobile phones, smartphones, or tablets, can communicate wirelessly thanks to the mobile phone network. The essential infrastructure is provided by mobile phone networks, which are run by mobile phone operators. There is also a core network that links the many access points together in addition to the access network, which establishes the wireless connection to the terminal devices using radio. The core network makes it possible for mobile users to communicate with other users of other access networks or external networks. The access network is the primary difference between fixed and mobile networks. In contrast to the mobile network, which uses wireless technology for its access network, the landline network utilizes a core network that is comparable to or the same.

GERAN

GSM EDGE Radio Access Network is referred to as GERAN. The 3GPP is in charge of maintaining the GERAN standards (Third Generation Partnership Project). A crucial component of both GSM and networks that integrate UMTS and GSM is GERAN. The radio component of GSM/EDGE is known as GERAN, and it also refers to the network that connects base stations (also known as the Ater and Abis interfaces) and base station controllers (A interfaces, etc.) The network serves as the hub of a GSM network, routing packet data, and phone calls to and from subscriber handsets coming from and going to the PSTN and the Internet. In the case of a UMTS/GSM network, a mobile phone operator's network consists of one or more GERANs linked with UTRANs. Without GSM, a GERAN is an ERAN. The A, Gb, and Iu interfaces are connected to the CN via the GSM Edge Radio Access Network, which supports the EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution) modulation technology (Core Network). The architecture enables the connection of two BSSs (Base Station Subsystem).

UTRAN

Numerous new terminology for the network components emerged with the launch of 3G UMTS. UTRA and UTRAN were two popular ones.

UTRA standards for UMTS radio access and UTRAN standards for UMTS radio access network cover the many components of the radio access network, such as the Base station controller and what was formerly known as the Base transceiver station.

The Radio Network Subsystem, or RNS, was another name for the UMTS terrestrial access network, also known as UTRAN.

Two key parts make up the Radio Network Subsystem, or RNS, of the UMTS Radio Access Network:

• The radio resources under its control are the Node Bs that are connected to it, or the Radio Network Controller, or RNC, a component of the UTRAN/radio network subsystem. The RNC handles some, but not all, of the mobility management tasks as well as radio resource management. To prevent user data from being intercepted, data encryption and decryption are also carried out at this stage.
• Node B: The base station transceiver is referred to as Node B in UMTS. The transmitter and receiver for communicating with the UEs inside the cell are located in this section of the UTRAN. It takes involvement in resource management alongside the RNC. The 3GPP word for the base station is nodeB, and the two phrases are frequently used synonymously. The RNC communicates not only with the Core Network but also with nearby RNCs to provide efficient handover between Node Bs under the authority of various RNCs.

E-UTRAN

The Long Term Evolution (LTE) upgrade path for mobile networks is implemented by the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) using the E-UTRA air interface. It stands for Evolved Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) Terrestrial Radio Access, commonly referred to as the 3GPP work item on the Long Term Evolution (LTE) and known in early draughts of the 3GPP LTE specification as the Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA).   E-UTRA, user equipment (UE), and E-UTRAN Node B or Evolved Node B make up the Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network, or E-UTRAN (eNodeB). The EUTRAN standard, also known as a radio access network (RAN), was created to take the position of the UMTS and HSDPA/HSUPA technologies described in 3GPP versions 5 and beyond. E-UTRA, the air interface system used by LTE, is wholly different from and incompatible with W-CDMA, in contrast to HSPA. Higher data speeds, less latency, and packet data optimization are all features it offers. On the downlink, it makes use of OFDMA radio access, and on the uplink, SC-FDMA. Trials began in 2008.

Here are some characteristics of EUTRAN:

• Peak download rates of 150.8 Mbit/s for 22 antennas using 20 MHz of spectrum and 299.6 Mbit/s for 44 antennas. Peak download speeds of 2,998.6 Mbit/s are supported by LTE Advanced in 88 antenna setups in a combined 100 MHz channel.
• The LTE standard allows for peak upload speeds of 75.4 Mbit/s on a 20 MHz channel and up to 1,497.8 Mbit/s on a 100 MHz carrier for LTE Advanced.
• Low changeover and connection setup latencies, as well as low data transfer latencies (sub-5 ms latency for tiny IP packets under ideal circumstances).
• Depending on the frequency band, support for terminals traveling at up to 350 km/h or 500 km/h.
• Support for all frequency bands currently utilized by IMT systems by ITU-R Support for both full-duplex FDD and half-duplex TDD with the same radio access technology
• Flexible bandwidth: The specified ranges are 1.4 MHz, 3 MHz, 5 MHz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz, and 20 MHz. W-CDMA, in contrast, makes use of fixed 5 MHz spectrum blocks.
• A 2–5-times increase in spectral efficiency over 3GPP (HSPA) release 6
• Support for cells with radii ranging from tens of meters (femto and picocells) to more than 100 km (macrocells)
• eNodeBs make up the entire network side of EUTRAN, which is a simplified architecture.
• Interoperability with various systems (such as GSM/EDGE, UMTS, CDMA2000, WiMAX, etc.) is supported.
• Interface for packet-switched radio.

CDMA2000

The CDMA2000 family of 3G mobile technology standards is used to transmit speech, data, and signaling data between mobile phones and cell sites. It is often referred to asC2Kor IMT Multi-Carrier (IMT MC). It was created by 3GPP2 and used mostly in North America and South Korea as a backward-compatible replacement for the second-generation cdmaOne (IS-95) set of standards. The 3GPP-developed UMTS, a rival set of 3G technologies used in Europe, Japan, China, and Singapore, compares to CDMA2000.

The family of standards known as CDMA2000 represents the many, developing stages of the underlying technology. These are:

• Voice: 1xRTT, CDMA2000 Advanced
• Data: Ultra Mobile Broadband, Release 0, Revision A, and 1xEV-DO (Evolution-Data Optimized) for CDMA2000 (UMB) All are IMT-2000 radio interfaces that have been authorized by the ITU. The Telecommunications Industry Association has registered CDMA2000 as a trademark in the United States (TIA-USA). Features:
• A series of technologies known as CDMA2000 enables the transfer of speech, data, and signal via 3G mobile cellular networks.
• It allows for mobile communication at rates of 144Kbps to 2Mbps.
• It has a packet core network (PCN) for highly secure data packet delivery.
• It uses 3G networks to implement multicarrier modulation techniques. Higher data rates, more bandwidth, and better speech quality are all results of this. Additionally, it supports previous CDMA iterations.
• It includes facilities for wandering in multiple modes and bands.

GSM

The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) created the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) standard to describe the protocols for second-generation (2G) digital cellular networks used by mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. In Finland, it was initially used in December 1991. By the middle of the 2010s, it had over 90% of the market share and was used in over 193 nations and territories, making it the industry standard for mobile communications.

• First generation (1G) analog cellular networks were replaced by second generation (2G) networks. A digital, circuit-switched network designed for full duplex voice communication was originally described by the GSM standard. The scope of this increased over time to encompass data communications, initially through circuit-switched transport, then through packet data transfer via General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), and Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE).
• The third generation (3G) UMTS standards were later established by the 3GPP, along with the fourth generation (4G) LTE Advanced, and the fifth generation (5G) standards, which are independent of the ETSI GSM standard.
• The GSM Association is the owner of the trademark "GSM." It might also be referring to Full Rate, which was once the most widely used voice codec.
• Due to the network's broad use in Europe, the abbreviation "GSM" was temporarily used in France, the Netherlands, and Belgium to refer to all mobile phones. Many people in Belgium continue to use it now. Many carriers throughout the world started to shut down their GSM networks in the late 2010s.

UMTS

The third generation mobile cellular system for networks based on the GSM standard is called the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS). UMTS, a part of the International Telecommunication Union's IMT-2000 standard set, is created and maintained by the 3GPP (3rd Generation Partnership Project). It competes with the CDMA2000 standard set for networks based on the rival cdmaOne technology. Wideband code-division multiple access (W-CDMA) radio access technology is used by UMTS to give mobile network operators more spectral efficiency and bandwidth.

The radio access network (UTRAN, or UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network), the core network (MAP, or Mobile Application Part), and user authentication via SIM (subscriber identity module) cards are all part of the full network system that is specified by UMTS.

Other names for the technology covered by UMTS include Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA) and 3GSM.

UMTS needs new base stations and new frequency allocations, unlike EDGE (IMT Single-Carrier, based on GSM), and CDMA2000 (IMT Multi-Carrier).

Theoretically, UMTS can allow data transmission rates of up to 42 Mbit/s when Evolved HSPA (HSPA+) is used in the network. Users in deployed networks can anticipate a downlink connection transfer rate of up to 7.2 Mbit/s for High-Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) handsets and up to 384 kbit/s for Release '99 (R99) handsets (the original UMTS release). These speeds surpass the 9.6 kbit/s of a single GSM error-corrected circuit-switched data channel, several 9.6 kbit/s High-Speed Circuit-Switched Data (HSCSD) channels, and 14.4 kbit/s for CDMAOne channels by wide margin.

1xEVDO

A telecommunications standard called Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO, EVDO, etc.) allows for the wireless transport of data using radio waves, generally for broadband Internet access. The EV-DO standard, which enables high data rates and can be implemented alongside voice services offered by a wireless carrier, is an extension of the CDMA2000 (IS-2000) standard. To increase throughput, it employs cutting-edge multiplexing strategies including time-division multiplexing (TDM) and code-division multiple access (CDMA). It is a member of the CDMA2000 family of standards and has been embraced by a large number of mobile phone service providers worldwide, especially those who previously used CDMA networks. Additionally, the Globalstar satellite phone network makes use of it. Mobile devices can connect to CDMA2000 networks' EV-DO feature at forwarding link air interface speeds of up to 2.4 Mbit/s with Rel. 0 and up to 3.1 Mbit/s with Rev. A. Rel. 0's reverse link rate is limited to 153 kbit/s, but Rev. A's reverse link rate is limited to 1.8 Mbit/s. It can handle any application that can function on such a network and bit rate restrictions because it was built to operate end-to-end as an IP-based network.

VoLTE

VoLTE is a high-speed wireless LTE communication standard for mobile phones and data terminals, including wearables and Internet of Things (IoT) gadgets. VoLTE has up to six times the call and data capacity of 2G GSM and up to three times the voice and data capacity of the older 3G UMTS. Due to the lower packet headers of VoLTE compared to VoIP/LTE which is not optimized, less bandwidth is used. Calls made through VoLTE are often priced at the same rate as regular calls. The device, its firmware, and the mobile phone carrier must all cooperate for a VoLTE call to be made. The service must also be available in the area. However, this is not the same as the VoLTE standard. Some carriers have advertised VoLTE as HD Voice. HD Voice was also available on 3G, however, HD+ (EVS) is the technology that is truly exclusively employed in LTE.

WIMAX

One of today's most popular broadband wireless technologies is WiMAX. WiMAX systems are anticipated to provide broadband access services to home and business clients in a cost-effective manner. WiMax is essentially a standardized wireless version of Ethernet designed largely as a replacement for wire technologies (such as Cable Modems, DSL, and T1/E1 lines) to deliver broadband access to customer premises.

WiMAX, to put it more precisely, is a trade association for the industry established by major communications, component, and equipment companies to encourage and certify the compatibility and interoperability of broadband wireless access equipment that complies with the IEEE 802.16 and ETSI HIPERMAN standards.

Similar to WiFi, WiMAX would function at faster rates over longer distances and with more users. WiMAX can deliver service even in locations that are challenging for wired infrastructure to reach and can get around the physical constraints of conventional wired infrastructure.

To facilitate the release of the initial 10-66 GHz IEEE 802.16 specifications, WiMAX was established in April 2001. The WiFi Alliance is 802.11 as WiMAX is 802.16.